Deaf Articles Essay

3. â€Å"Why Can’t Deaf Experts Hear Us?† a. What are the present Deaf issues? Some of the Deaf issues mentioned in the article are that that â€Å"Deaf experts† don’t like the thought of Deaf children learning to sign without voicing. They think that each Deaf child should be learning Total Communication, but there is no evidence showing that Total Communication is the best way to educate Deaf kids. Another issue is that the people at Gallaudet feel as if they are having to educate the educators about the need of American Sign Language in Deaf schools. Deaf people feel as if their culture is being attacked and is being weakened. The last main problem is that the so called â€Å"Deaf experts† study special education but none of them have any personal experience with Deaf people. These experts endorsing the programs don’t listen to the opinions of Deaf people, they only demand research and quote hearing people with Ph.D.’s. b. From the article, list three important facts you learned from the writer. I learned that the writer of this article is Deaf. I know this because at the beginning of the article he states, â€Å"Some days I wonder if my Deafness is contagious. I keep writing and signing the same things over and over again.† Another fact is that he has personal experience of trying to explain to educators the need for American Sign Language in the schools. When he talks about educating the educators, he explains that the powers just keep looking the other way. The last fact is that Jack Levesque feels as if the Deaf culture is being sort of taken away from them and is dying out. Why did you pick these facts? I picked the first fact because by knowing that the writer is Deaf it helps you better understand the emotion and personal feeling behind each word. I picked the fact that he has tried to explain that they need ASL in schools because that is what he is writing about, the use of ASL not English to educate the Deaf. He has personal frustrations with no ASL in schools; he is not simply relaying the message for other Deaf people. I chose the last fact because in reality, if you are forcing a different language than a native language on someone, you are stripping their culture away from them by not allowing them to just be themselves. This is a good point that he brings up and it saddens me that someone would even want to do that to another human. c. What are some observations or comments you have about the article? I wish that all of the Ph.D. experts in special education could just meet or talk to a few Deaf people and really get to know them. I think by doing this, they would realize how important Deaf culture and Sign Language really are to a Deaf person. I think this would change all the hearing people’s minds about forcing English onto Deaf people. It just isn’t natural for them. d. What do you think of Bonnies Bass’s article? I think that the point that she brings up makes a lot of sense. Americans just assume that Sign Language is just like English, but it is not. The grammar is completely different and the syntax is completely different. It is sad that Deaf children are not pushed to learn American Sign Language right away when they find out they are Deaf. It doesn’t make sense for kids to be tested on English when their native language should be Sign Language. That is like taking an English speaking student and putting a Spanish test in front of them and expecting them to get high scores. This article makes a lot of sense and I wish that more hearing people would read it so they could better understand that the two languages are different.

Summary of Instructional Problem

In the state of Kentucky Social Studies education focuses on five big ideas that all topics can fall under. These topics are government and civics, cultures and societies, economics, geography, and historical perspective. (Kidwell, 2012) Geography is one of the big five ideas and is extremely important. One of the foundations of geography is the use of map skills. Map skills can include simply reading a map, using visual literacy to decode information represented on a map, tracing a route from point A to point B, and using the information on a map to problem solve and make inferences.At Conway Middle School students in 6th, 7th, and 8th grades have problems with map skills. Specifically, students do not know how to correctly read a map, identify the different types of maps, locate information on a map, and when given a starting point and directions could not correctly trace/navigate to a disclosed or undisclosed end location. For example, when given the starting point for the explora tion of the Louisiana Territory by Lewis and Clark on a map and basic directions students could not correctly follow the path using geographic tools such as maps, atlas, globes, and photos.These are skills that students will need as they progress through their academic pursuits and in life. Based on data collected and a needs analysis there is a need for interventions to help resolve this instructional problem. Goal Statement Students in the 6th, 7th, and 8th grade at Conway Middle school after successfully completing the instructional unit will be able to apply the map skills that have been learned in the real world. Conway Middle School is an inner city, title 1 school. A reality of this is that many students rely on riding public transportation to get to and from school.One of the real world goals for instruction is that students will be able to look at a road map and navigate from Point A to Point B without the need for electronic devices to assist with mapping. The students wil l be able to correctly give someone directions to get from their present location to another location. The students will examine a map of the bus routes in the city of Louisville and be able to correctly pick the buses they would need to get on to get home from any location serviced by the Transit Authority of the River City.Students will use their learned map skills to problem solve using maps, graphs, and charts in other subject areas such as math and science. In addition to these real world applications students will be able to perform at a level greater or equal to 80% correct on a summative assessment given by the teacher that encompasses all the topics from the unit of instruction. The summative assessment will include topics from the desired conditions of this needs analysis. While map skills are a social studies topic they have many applications in other core content areas and within the real world.Many people use them on a daily basis and do not even realize their importanc e. While the goal of middle school social studies education should be to provide students with the skills to become good citizens and prepare them with the content knowledge and skills necessary to lay a foundation for college and career readiness that will lead to successful high school academic endeavors. The reality is that we must also meet state standards and often loose site of the most important part of the social studies content. The part of social studies content that I am referring to is the preparation of students to become good citizens.Learner Analysis Before beginning the learner analysis needs, the researcher feels it important to take moment to introduce the instructional setting of the group. For this learner analysis the instructional setting is Conway Middle School in Jefferson County, Kentucky. Conway Middle School is an inner city, title 1 school. The school is located in the Pleasure Ridge Park community of Louisville, Kentucky. Pleasure Ridge Park is located o n the south side of Louisville. Like many other major metropolitan areas the south side of town is not the most sought after area to live in or be from.Some students are bused into the area from other sections of town. Conway Middle School is home to almost 1000 students of various genders and ethnicities. The instructional unit will be taught in a 6th grade social studies classroom. The average amount of students in the classroom on a daily basis is 120. The 6th grade is made up of three teams of teachers. Each team has a social studies, math, language arts, and science teacher. Throughout the course of a normal school day a group of 130 students will rotate into each content area for seventy minutes.Now that the setting has been discussed let’s talk about the learners. Requisite Knowledge and Skills In the state of Kentucky middle school social studies has no prerequisite social studies skills or knowledge needed to be successful. However, there are certain requisite skills and knowledge that will help all students succeed. First, students need to have reading comprehension skills. The students must be able to read and write within one or two levels of the current grade. Second, the students need math comprehension skills.Math skills might sound funny as a requisite knowledge for social studies but it is true. Without math skills students would be ill prepared to understand the numbers on a map, the dates of events, cost of wars, and even the reasons behind the migrations of millions of people to new areas seeking better jobs, economic success, and untold fortunes. The reading skills are essential because what we know about social studies is made up from artifacts. Many of those artifacts are journals, diaries, declarations, newspapers, books, and interviews that in order to understand them a person would need reading skills.If a student has the requisite skills listed above the teacher can design an instructional unit that builds knowledge from the g round up. Now that the requisite skills have been discussed let’s take a look at the prior knowledge and skills of the learner group. Prior Knowledge and Skills The learner group has been assessed for prior knowledge and skills. A part of the assessment took place when the researcher administered a test/pre-test for the needs analysis in task 1. The teacher has also been assessing the students as the school year progressed.It was found that despite the best efforts of the learner group’s previous teachers many of the students lack basic knowledge of map skills. The students were taught map skills in the 5th grade, but very little was retained. During other assessments the teacher found out that many students could remember some of the words related to map skill but were unable to define them or their importance. The data from the previous assessments showed that there was a foundation to build upon but essentially the teacher was starting from the ground up when design ing the instructional unit.Most students knew their directions but very little otherwise. When given an atlas to assist with the pre-test the students’ average score overall was 52%. The data gathered from the needs analysis and other assessments of prior knowledge and skills will drive the design and focus of the instructional unit on map skills. Now that prior knowledge and skills have been discussed let’s move on to the demographic information of the learner group. Demographic Information The demographic makeup of the learner group is diverse. There are a total of 130 students in the group.62 of the students are male and 68 are female in gender. The ethnic makeup of the males is as follows: 49% African American, 40% white, 10% Latino, and 1% Asian. The ethnic makeup of the females is as follows: 53% African American, 41% white, 5% Latino, and 1% Asian. The females outnumber the males by almost 10%. 55% of the students come from single parent households. The ages ran ge from 10 years old to 12 years old and are of varied maturity levels. With over half of the students coming from single parent households, parental support is sometimes at low level.Having a majority of the students being female and/or African American influences the way in which the teacher must design the instructional unit. The demographics can sometimes make it difficult to design instruction in a way that is both relevant and interesting for all students. Along with taking into account the demographics of the learner group the teacher must account for the learner group’s attitudes towards the topic when designing instruction. Learner Group Attitudes Attitude is everything. When designing a unit of instruction a teacher must take into account the learner group’s attitudes toward the topic, education, and teachers.That might sound like an easy task but it is not. Students bring past experiences and attitudes toward teachers and education into the classroom every d ay. This has a profound influence on the learning environment. For example, almost half of the students that this teacher sees on daily basis say social studies is their least favorite subject at school. Some of those same students attribute this to previous teachers and the experience that they have had. Other students like social studies but hate map skills calling it boring and useless. These students are the ones that make designing instruction a little more time consuming. To combat thenegativity towards social studies the teacher must go out of his/her way to build the relationships with students to foster a mutual respect and hopefully instill a lifelong love of learning. While building the relationships the teacher is able to design instruction in a way that is relevant to each student and interesting. Despite best efforts there will always be one or two students with a negative attitude towards the topic. One way that I have found to make learning fun and interesting is thr ough the use of whole brain teaching. Whole brain teaching accounts for all learning styles and at the same time manages behaviors in the classroom.Speaking of learning styles, let’s take a look at the unique characteristics of the students in the learner group. Unique Characteristics Within the teacher’s class there is a diverse group of learners. They are made up of various ethnicities from many different backgrounds. First, let’s take a look at the learning styles of the group. About halfway through the school year the teacher was introduced to a new to him style of teaching. That style was called Whole Brain Teaching. The teacher is bringing this up because of the variety of learning styles in his classroom.Those learning styles are kinesthetic, visual, and auditory. When the program was implemented in this teacher’s classroom he surveyed the class to ask about their learning style. It was very informative. Over half of the class said that they learne d best in more than one way. At first the teacher was worried. He thought to himself how am I going to teach to all of these learning styles? I will spend all my free time designing instruction. It really wasn’t that bad. The whole brain teaching method allowed the teacher to reach the students that were kinesthetic learners by incorporating movement in the classroom.The visual learners learned by watching the teacher teach, other students teach, reading, and by watching short video clips incorporated into the lessons. The auditory learners heard the teacher teaching, listening to other students during the turn and teach portion of the lesson, by listening to the oral reading of exerts, and by listening to the video clips incorporated into the lessons. The unique characteristics of the learners means that the teacher must design lessons that incorporate visual, auditory, and kinesthetic pieces into the instruction.At times it can be very difficult to design a lesson that reac hes all learning styles. This only takes into account the unique characteristics of a little over three quarters of the class. Almost 15% of the class were/are ECE or Special Education Students. The special education students have a variety of diagnoses that range from Attention Deficit Disorder, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, Other Health Impairment, Learning Disorder, Behavior Disorder, to Oppositional Defiant Disorder. Those are a wide range of diagnoses and they must be taken into account as well.In addition to those diagnoses one student suffers from seizures that can be triggered by flashing lights. What does all of this mean? It means that a great attention to detail must be used by the teacher when designing the instructional unit and the learning environment. The teacher has a binder with all of the Individual Education Plans and a spreadsheet to make instructional design easier. When designing the instructional unit and assessment the teacher must take into acco unt the accommodations that these IEP’s allow.Accommodations As stated above 15% of the class is made up of ECE or Special Education students. These students all have IEP’s that allow for accommodations. The accommodations are as follows: extended time, paraphrasing, the use of a reader, the use of a scribe, prompts and cues, redirection, preferential seating choice, and a special behavior plan. When designing the instruction the teacher accounts for extended time by creating fill in the blank note sheets for all students. This way the students aren’t singled out by others.Paraphrasing is allowed for when the teacher is reading the text or lecturing. Usually it is qualified for the students with a statement that starts out with â€Å"in other words it means this. † The reader is allowed for during the lessons and during assessments. During assessments the teacher reads each question out to the class. When that is not possible a qualified special education profession will take the students that require reader to another location to administer the test. The one student that is allowed a scribe has a special electronic device that he carries with him each day.The lessons are scanned into a document for him to complete on the device. Assessments are handled in the same fashion. The students that are allowed prompts and cues receive them throughout the lesson. Sometimes it is just a matter of walking by and pointing something out to the student. At other times it requires a verbal cue or redirection. Two students have IEPs that allow for preferential seating because they have very poor eyesight. At the beginning of the school year I asked the two students in private which seat they would prefer in the front row.Those two students pointed out their seats and have been in them ever since. When the lesson or classroom is moved around these students get preferential seating. One student has a special behavior plan. He is a very smart student . This student only has an IEP because his disruptive behavior sometimes requires removal from the stimulus of the class. All students that are allowed accommodations based on their IEPs receive them. Performance Context The performance context in which the students are expected to use the new skills and knowledge has several locations.Based on the real world instructional goal the students will go be able to go out into the city and do certain tasks but for the class the students will practice these in a safe and controlled environment. For example, one of the goals discusses being able to read a map and give directions to from Point A to Point B. Before this will be applied in the real world students will apply it in the classroom. Am I saying that all the students are going to go give someone directions or ride the bus home? No, what I am saying is that at the completion of the instructional unit the student will be prepared to do these tasks if needed.The teacher has an instruct ional lesson that involves the students using only a map and or atlas to route a family vacation to another state. Through demonstration of using the atlas to correctly route a family vacation the students will have simulated part of the real world goals in a controlled environment. In light of the fact that many students use public transportation to get to and from school the teacher has designed a lesson that again allows the students to practice this real world activity in a safe and controlled environment.For that lesson all the students will have a copy of the Transit Authority of the River City, the city bus company, TARC for short’s routes. The assignment requires the students to examine the bus routes and correctly list the buses that they will need to ride to get from Conway Middle School to their house. When the students complete this assignment they will also have to account for the bus schedule and determine what time to leave, how long they will be at each bus st op, and the amount of time it will take them to get from school to home.One of the performance contexts is in the current classroom and future classrooms. What I mean by this is that after the successful completion of the unit the students will have better map skills that can be applied in this social studies classroom and in other classrooms both in the present and the future. Through a thorough learner analysis the teacher is better prepared to design the unit of instruction to meet the needs of all of his students and prepare them to be successful.

Economic of Industry

Despite the different degree of competitions and the level of development in the market across the various types of industries, most firms are continuously and consistently looking for ways and opportunities to enhance their ability to grow or even to just maintain sustainability and survival in the industry. Firms carry out diversification such as developing new lines and products, joint ventures and acquiring firms in unrelated lines of business, to improve on their corporate efficiency and benefits of the shareholder. For example, if a firm’s business focuses on seasonal products such as selling heating equipment, sales will do well during the autumn and winter months. However, to ensure the firm’s survival and maintain its business during the summer, it will need to carry out diversification such as establishing new product lines (i. e. Air conditioners). Therefore, firms diversify to achieve economies of scales and scope, to economize on transaction costs, improving shareholder’s diversification by reducing risks, as well as identifying undervalued firms. This paper will look at the different advantages and drawbacks of diversification as well as their economic validity. Diversification for Economies of Scales and Scopes It has been said that when a firm is able to achieve economies of scale, the production levels becomes more efficient as the number of goods being produced increases. With the increase in production levels, firms will then able to lower their average cost per unit as the fixed cost are able to spread out over a large number of goods. For large firms, this will be a great advantage to them as it allows these firms to be able to gain access to a larger market. Furthermore with a lower average cost in production, they will be able to position their products at a more cheaply and affordable pricing in the market, giving firms a competitive advantage as well as it sits greatly for the consumer. A good example of such company would be Wal-Mart WMT. Being a dominant player in the retailing industry as well as the sheer size of the company, Wal-Mart has great efficiencies at keeping costs low as the company has tremendous bargaining power with its suppliers. This allows Wal-Mart to be able to retail their products at a heaper price as well as having inexpensive distributions. However, it has been said that diversifying for economies of scales has an adverse effect on the smaller to medium size firms as it raises cost instead. It is generally true if the concept is viewed narrowly but small firms nowadays has managed to find ways to create opportunities to achieve economies of scales such as buying services, sharing risks and scaling through tech nology. Most small firms rather engaged services from a larger company as opposed to doing the job in-house to cut cost. Therefore any organizations servicing these smaller businesses (i. e. payroll services) are view as an â€Å"economies of scale† from the perspective of the small firms. Economies of Scopes on the other hand has a similar concept as economies of scales but refers more to firms that are able to lower their average cost by developing and producing or providing two or more products in their businesses. This means that a given level of production cost of each product line by a firm is much lower as compared to the given output level of a single product each produced by a combination of separate firms. An example of a company that uses economies of scope at its advantage would be Daiso. Daiso produced and retail hundreds of products from foods to house cleaning materials which allow them to offer standardization in their product’s pricings. With higher demands and production level as well as a lower average cost achieved through economies of scales, it definitely does help for firms to diversify so as to maximise their profit margins. Economizing on transaction costs Transaction costs in economics are unavoidable by firms and are usually incurred when making economic transactions such as buying or making products. Transaction cost complicates coordination as well as affecting the firms’ profit and loss. It reduces profit margin and a high transaction cost over time may result in firms having to face huge losses. For example, for a firm to produce a product it will need to carry out R&D and obtain information from different kind of sources which cost money. Therefore to reduce or economize the transaction costs, firms diversify by carrying out merger and acquisition. For example, in order to expand its revenue stream, Dell Inc, an American multinational computer technology corporation has decided to extend its target market to the gaming industry by creating a new line of product of gaming PCs. However, it requires Dell to carry out R&D to obtain and search for relevant information on the product and the target market and all this accumulates as transaction costs. Therefore to avoid incurring high transaction cost, Dell Inc. ad decided to acquire Alienware, a manufacturer of high-end gaming PCs in 2006. In conclusion, firm diversifying to economize transaction cost is viable and valid in the economic market as it helps to reduce cost thus improving the profit margin for the firms. Internal Capital Markets Internal Capital Markets of diversified firms allows firms to properly allocate its resources according to how its best use. It creat es efficiencies and increases firm’s control of funds which allows easier monitoring and lowers the monitoring costs as well as reducing chances of fraud. In addition, internal capital market allows firm to have informational advantage to make the necessary changes and allocation to its resources when it is being used improperly. For example; if the cost of issuing shares at a bargain price to the old shareholders outweigh project’s net profit value, the firm may decide to forgo NPV project which in return result in an underinvestment problem. However through internal capital market, diversified firms are able to allocate resources more efficiently and diminish the underinvestment problems. Internal capital market however may cause firms more harm than good. As established by Stulz (1990), diversification may engender influence costs and result in cross-subsidisation where some diversified firms tend to underinvest in high-performing projects and overinvest in the lower ones. This may have adverse impact on firm’s return and profitability as a firm allocating too many resources on a segment that relatively had less investment opportunities is unconditionally leaving some of the better projects in other segments underinvested which may bring in more profits to the firm. Shareholder’s diversification Diversifying helps to reduce firm’s risk and smooth out its earnings stream. However, most shareholders do not benefit from this as they are able to diversify their portfolio at near zero cost through investing in many different options. However, there is a fraction of shareholders whom are unable to carry out diversification on their own. They are usually the owners of firms whom investments are largely based on their own business and are the leasing shareholder of the firm. Due to this, the shareholders are unable to carry out proper portfolio diversification and therefore rely and benefit greatly from the risk reductions carried out by firms. For example, a firm developing new lines of businesses internally reduce its risk of failing as it streams of revenue are being segregated and relied on different channels. If one was to fail, there will be other means of business for the firm to recoup its losses and streaming in revenue. With this, the firm shareholders’ risks are being indirectly reduced as well. Identifying undervalued Firm Undervalued firm’s assets and potential earning power are usually inadequately reflected in its stock price. This means these firms are actually worth more than what is being expected of them in the market. Therefore, other firms whom are able to recognize this mispricing diversify and acquire these undervalued firms and benefits from the acquisition by gaining the differences between the value and purchased price as surplus. For example, General Electronics has over the years been carrying out acquisition and diversifies its business which allows stability in its earnings. However, identifying undervalued firm is not easy and some firm acquisition can bring more harm the benefits to a company. Furthermore, public firms traded in reasonably efficient markets may have their valuation surplus quickly eliminated by the premiums paid on market prices. Therefore, it is more viable in the economics to carry out acquisitions in less efficient markets or acquire private businesses. Conclusion In conclusion, though diversification come with a cost for firms and may be difficult to be carried out in some cases, I do believe that it is valid in economics as it greatly benefit firms in reducing risk and widen its revenue stream which in returns increases profit margins. Therefore, firms should see diversification as a viable option in expanding its business.

Strategic Choice and Evaluation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Strategic Choice and Evaluation - Essay Example This paper will look at alternatives Medtronic’s should consider to realize growth. The paper will assess the best value discipline, generic strategy, and grand strategy for the organization. The paper will conclude by recommending a combination of strategies the organization should put into practice. The best value discipline Medtronic’s should consider to realize growth is customer intimacy. This means that Medtronic’s will concentrate on providing services and products required by a particular client and not what is required by the whole market. Organizations, which are customer-intimate, develop relationships with their clients and are not after one time dealings. They dedicate their selves in satisfying distinctive needs, which frequently only they, by virtue of their profound knowledge, and intimate relationship with clients acknowledge (Grant, 2008). Therefore, for Medtronic’s to realize growth, their suggestion to the clients should be to provide t he best solution for them and offer all the assistance necessary so as to realize the best outcomes and at total minimal cost. The best generic strategy to be employed by Medtronic’s should be the cost leadership strategy. Generic strategies illustrate the techniques of attaining competitive advantage. This explains the techniques employed to establish the upper hand that gets the organization the sale and takes it away from rivals in the sector. There are two ways Medtronic’s may realize this by utilizing the cost leadership strategy. One, Medtronic’s may enhance earnings by minimizing expenses while utilizing industry-average costs. Two, Medtronic’s may augment market share by imposing reduced costs, while at the same time making a realistic profit on every services offered and of product sold because Medtronic’s will have decreased costs. One should bear in mind that cost leadership concerns lessening the cost to the organization of providing se rvices and products. Also, it should be noted that the price or cost paid by the client is a distinct matter. The cost leadership strategy entails being the leader with regard to cost in the market or industry. Being among the lowest-cost producers is simply not sufficient as Medtronic’s will leave itself wide open to competition by other organizations who offer services and products at a lower cost and, consequently, may emasculate Medtronic’s prices and, therefore, hinder its capacity to realize growth. Therefore, Medtronic’s needs to have confidence in attaining and retaining the leaders position prior to selecting the cost leadership strategy. Nonetheless, organizations that successfully realize the cost leadership strategy typically contain extremely adequate logistics, access to the funds required to invest in technology which will help lessen costs, and a reduced cost base, and a strategy of efficiently reducing costs beneath those of its rivals (Olsen, 2 012). The grand strategy that Medtronic’s should consider to realize growth is product development. Product development entails investing immensely in research and development so as to fashion innovative and new product offerings. Product development is fundamentally the reverse of market development. Pro

Assessment Techniques for Evaluating Student Progress Essay

Assessment Techniques for Evaluating Student Progress - Essay Example While formal assessment offers accountability in an education system that calls for measured results, informal assessment is a method that can bring about improvement since it gives a student the ability to evaluate self and to see individually how further learning can lead to success. The two major types of formal assessment are 1) norm-referenced tests and 2) criterion-referenced tests. Both depend on a particular standard, but norm is based on a comparison with other students taking the same test, and criterion-referenced tests measure student ability within a course of study. The student's performance is compared to an established level of achievement for each task or unit of the curriculum (Rothenbacher & Leconte, 1990). The broad definition of curriculum as it relates to this paper is "all the learning planned and guided by the school, whether in groups or individually inside or outside the school" (Kelly, 1983). This type of assessment depends on standardized tests, which are administered annually by school districts and provide a ready source of data. These tests are administered across a large number of students for the purpose of comparing individual performance to the rest of the group. Also, because test publishers provide information about the tests' reliability and validity, the results are generally accepted by educators and the community. In addition, in a structured classroom setting, students have immediate access to assistance and might enjoy the social environment a formal classroom provides. A.2 Criterion-referenced Assessment This method offers a quick analysis that measures students against a set objective or criterion. It also eliminates competition and because the student is not measured by how his or her peers are doing, self-evaluation can bring about a higher level of self-esteem. Based on standardized testing, a result can be determined by a standardized checklist or rubrics, which offers validity within the system. Criterion-referenced assessment might be categorized as either formal or informal. Disadvantages of Formal Assessment Techniques B.1 Norm-referenced Assessment The test results, because they are compared to the results of other students, don't always determine the ability of the individual student. A standardized test is discriminatory because the curve favors high scorers, and lower-scoring students are automatically placed at the bottom. Therefore the actual ability of the test taker is not measured. Standardized tests, especially norm-referenced tests, are the same across all student levels and geographical areas and therefore set up an unrealistic result with the assumption that all students are the same. B.2 Criterion-referenced Assessment Although this system offers more areas of evaluation for individual students, the end result is a standard measurement. Educators sometimes base their evaluation of a student's ability on the overall results instead of looking at an individual's response to different units within the curriculum. A set standard, no matter how informal it may seem, is still structured and the

QUESTIONS Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

QUESTIONS - Essay Example Today, the US empire has troops stationed in over 100 countries worldwide. This started in the aftermath of WWII when the US had tremendous goodwill and respect from the rest of the world. Treaties were signed, bases were constructed and the troops have been stationed in far-flung locations ever since. The central ideal on which the United States was founded is the Rule of Law. That concept, as the central ideal that America was known for, has special application to the period just after WWII. Following WWII, the US pioneered the field of international law with the Nuremberg war trials, effectively telling the world that not only was no man above the Law, but no nation was above the law. This was a first in the history of the world. The popular slogan of peace, justice and the American way is a reference to the rule of law, not democracy. However, with the transition to an empire the concept of democracy is now emphasized and one does not hear much about the rule of law. The rule of law sums up a plethora of ideals: trial by jury, innocent until proven guilty, the right to face one’s accusers, freedom of speech, religious free exercise, right to keep and bear arms, freedom from arbitrary search and seizure and the list goes on. All the Constitutionally guaranteed rights come down to the rule of law.

European Politics in the 16th and 17th Centuries Essay

European Politics in the 16th and 17th Centuries - Essay Example From the Spanish point of view, any resistance that the natives demonstrated to the conversion was a work of none other than the Satan. The Spanish presented the natives with an ultimatum to both adopt Christianity and then swear allegiance to the Spanish crown of Castile. Those who would refuse to do that would then face military action. This occurred as one of the immediate and unfortunate effect of the reformation. The intolerance that developed expressed itself in religious wars and persecution. Albeit the main motive should have been to generate the true spirit of Christ or the fatherhood of God and brotherhood of man, the reformation made millions of people to suffer on the account of religion. The main subjects of the Italian, Spanish and Portuguese monarchs were deliberately forced to remain catholic. Those who refused to convert to catholic suffered death or imprisonment. The main aim behind ‘a Short account of the Destruction of the Indies’ was to inform the King of Spain regarding the gold hoarding and the murders that were occurring in the New World. The reason of the expeditions was chiefly to convert the natives to Christianity and as a result protect them from the eternal damnation. In contrast to this, the Spaniards that were sent did not follow the rules that were given to them. Instead they targeted and killed millions of natives for their gold. A minor percentage of the gold that was hoarded was allocated for the Spanish purse. At this time, Christian missionaries such as Las Casas tried their best in order to bring justice to the land.

Everyday uses of mathematics 0920 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Everyday uses of mathematics 0920 - Essay Example One simply cannot cook unless one is not able to get the proportion of varied ingredients that need to be put in a particular dish. One cannot cook varied recipes given in cook books and magazines if one does not know the basic mathematics to be able to calculate the quantity of varied spices and ingredients that one needs to put in a dish one is cooking. Once again, driving a car is a fairly common activity. Yet, the thing is that to know as to when one will reach one’s destination one need to know about the distance at which a place is located and the speed of one’s car. Only then one is able to calculate the time when he will reach the intended destination. Once again, this requires knowledge of basic mathematics. Students and household people do keep weekly and monthly budgets to keep an eye on their expenditure and savings. Again it is not possible to make and manage household budgets unless one does not know how to count the money one has at one’s disposal and as to how to add, subtract, divide and multiply varied sums of money. The one other thing students and professionals do is to keep a weekly and monthly planner to be able to manage their routines and to keep an eye on the time they have at their disposal. Again, one really cannot keep oneself organized and punctual by keeping a track of one’s t ime if one does not know how to watch time and the basic mathematics to be able to add and subtract time. The other commonly known activity that requires the knowledge of mathematics is the maintenance of personal statistics. People losing weight do keep a track of the pounds they have gained or lost and the change in the circumference of their waist and arms and legs. One really cannot do these things without knowing a little bit of mathematics. Isn’t it interesting to note that one even cannot lose weight without having knowledge of mathematics? People often go to shopping and while

Sustainable Fast Food Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Sustainable Fast Food - Essay Example The firm appears to have many positive features whereby it can take advantage of economies of scope and scale which may help to make it attractive to potential customers. In order to assess the potential of Cream Tavern to be sustainable in the future period, it is imperative to analyse the organisations’ environment it will be operating in through conducting a SWOT as well as PESTEL analysis of the factors that will affect its operations. There is also need to outline the company’s intended operating strategies so as to ascertain its sustainability in the future. This includes identifying the sources of competitive advantage as well as its potential for better performance in the future. Underlying the notion of sustainability are the needs of the current and future generations (Fox & Rooyen 2004). During the contemporary period, it can be noted that sensitivity towards the natural environment and ecological sustainability is gaining prominence and the theme of going green is used to guide many firms in their attempt to establish business. Cream Tavern intends to utilise 100 % organic milk products to manufacture dairy related products in the fast food industry. The concept of environmental protection has recently gained prominence hence sensitivity to the natural environment and ecological sustainability will be used as guiding principles in the operations of this organisation in the fast food industry. In order to operate successfully, there is need for policy formulation that is responsive to the needs of the environment while at the same time satisfying the needs of the customers. Cream Tavern has underscored to recycle all the by-products in the fast food indus try so as to show concern for the environment. This will go a long way in addressing the concerns of the environment while at the same time utilising the material that can be treated as waste in some cases. In this case, it can be noted that the fast food

UNIX Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

UNIX - Essay Example Now however we are presented with the 3D interface that somehow accusingly is deemed not viable. The 3D interface has been hailed as the road to incredible virtual landscape discovery. It couples sound and graphic and enables a faster multiple file copying and file location. The purpose of this paper is to examine the phenomenon of 3D feature in the operating systems of Mac OS, the widespread Linux, Windows and more emphatically UNIX. Apart from its impact on the IT world we will consider a review and evaluation of multiple desktops, program launchers, file browsers, task switchers from a 3D standpoint. The UNIX system has sold incredible number of software to a host of other software developers from Linux, Solaris, to Mac OS X. in fact their development are as a result of a component of the UNIX system. Since the UNIX operating system is to a very large extent engaged in compliance certification, multitasking, multiple users, its position is solid. Most other applications mentioned earlier depend on the UNIX system server. The UNIX operating system was instrumental in the launch of the Win3D beta version interface that created a renaissance in the whole 3D environment. The basic principle was to multi task the desktop to perform more than one job than it traditionally performed. UNIX therefore provided businesses and advertisers online a well primed tool for increasing sales and entering a new dawn of marketing endeavor. The other aspect was introduction of a 3D interface that was cheap and functional in possession of a head tracking device. It also uses a WII Remote. The strength of this interface is its usage in the solid UNIX interface. The UNIX system holds some of the most incredible 3D animation, 3D ant attack and other 3D games. Linux as an operating system was developed from a minute UNIX constituent called Minix.

Nature Imagery in Wuthering Heights Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Nature Imagery in Wuthering Heights - Essay Example Characters played by Cathy and Heathcliff and key locations of Thrushcross Grange and Wuthering Heights depict frequent use of symbolism in the structure of themes and imagery in the novel. The whole novel fundamentally revolves around the thesis: How the use of nature imagery depicts the mutual existence of â€Å"good and evil† in relation to the key characters in the novel who become self aware of their feelings and bond.   Nature imagery depicts the contrast of Thrushcross Grange and Wuthering Heights: The central locations of Thrushcross Grange and Wuthering Heights signify the apparent contrast between them as the main action sites with the use of nature imagery. The integral part of Wuthering Heights is apparent in the novel. Characters involved in the plot of novel are Lockwood, Nelly, Mr. Earnshaw, Hindley, Catherine, and Heathcliffe. The story begins with Lockwood renting a manor house called Thrushcross Grange. The manor house is owned by his landlord, Heathcliff. Nelly Dean, who happens to be Heathcliffe’s housekeeper, narrates the story of Heathcliff and the strange citizens of Wuthering Heights. ... Also, Catherine chooses to marry Edgar because of the peace, calm and protection offered by the Thrushcross Grange Valley. The similarity between Grange and heaven shows up when Catherine describes her experience with heaven in these words, â€Å"... heaven did not seem to be my home, and I broke my heart with weeping to come back to earth; and the angels were so angry that they flung me out into the middle of the heath where I woke sobbing for joy† (Bronte 64). On the other hand, Wuthering Heights is described as a hell because of many similarities between the two. It is described as a dark place with dark complexioned and dark haired inhabitants. Lockwood explains in the very beginning of the novel that Wuthering is â€Å"a significant provincial adjective, descriptive of the atmospheric tumult to which its station is exposed in stormy weather"(Bronte 4). Furthermore, Lockwood describes Heathcliff as â€Å"a dark-skinned gypsy in aspect, in dress and manners a gentleman, t hat is, as much a gentleman as many a country squire† (Bronte 6).   Nature imagery depicts the depth of relationships: At their young age, Catherine and Heathcliff like each other and their relationship grows stronger with the passage of time. The role of nature imagery in the lives of the main characters highlights the destructive power of love. Particularly, the character of Heathcliff represents the destructive power of love through the growing relationship of Catherine and Edgar. Catherine comes from Wuthering Height while Edgar belongs to Thrushcross Grange. Heathcliff develops a strong sense of hatred towards Edgar Linton upon hearing the news of Catherine’s approval of Edgar’s proposal of marriage. Catherine made Heathcliff leave

Improved Management Decision Making Essay Example for Free

Improved Management Decision Making Essay Managers at all levels of a business are required to make decisions constantly. Whether it be at an often low risk operational level, or at high importance strategic level, precise analysis is essential, failure on doing so could end in disaster in businesss unforgiving world. Evidence of this can be seen in the strategic level of Dell management in 2004. A poor decision to enter the market with their DJ.Ditty MP3 player, Dell failed to address any strong marketing campaign along with failure to analyse stronger substitute products concluded in Dell discontinuing the product two years later in 2006. The decision made in the development of the product were likewise poor as rival companies such as Apple and Zens product features far overpowered Dells weak product. (Laubacher 2011). Simple research into Information Systems tells us they are able to display information that can lead us to answer questions we are often queried with. But often management decisions are not just simple rhetorical answers but strategic procedures that will aid the business in specific ways. In this essay I will assess the different methods of how IT based systems through the means of Information systems can aid management decisions or, if they do at all. (C.Lucas 1994)In his book information systems concepts for management, defines an IS as a set of organised procedures, that when executed, provides information to support organisation. The information is a tangible or intangible entity that serves to reduce uncertainty about some state or event. (Oz, Jones and Gowthorpe 2009) Back this definition up stating an IS system is a computer based set of hardware, software and telecommunications components, supported by people and procedures to process data and turn it into useful information. The information system can then be divided up into different subsystems with varying goals that help gear towards the organisations main goal. It is clear that ISs are significant in the day to day operation of a business. The fact that ISs can answer question is indisputable, but the process in which they answer them and the form of answers they give can be debated. Synergy defines the combined resource output exceeding the total output of the same resources if they were employed separately (Oz, Jones and Gowthorpe 2009). This theory can be stretched as far as the four stages of processing that an information system goes through. Input is the first stage of this process which is entered by the human. The next three stages include the processing of the IS system, these include changing and manipulating the data, extracting the information out of the information system and finally storing the information that the IS system has administered. This is a great example of synergy, the IS system calculates the data at a quicker and cheaper cost than if a human were to do it, but the IS system first needs input from an event or scenario from a human, this evidence of synergy. (C.Luckem 2002) Theory on complex event processing relates to this very well. He defines each business action (be this internal with staffing decisions or external with customers through sales) taking several stages of events to reach a final state and in todays technological driven domain ISs play a very Important role in each of these states. He relates to the use of ISs gathering and storing of data, sharing of information and the ability of systems to automate and often control components playing a vital part of CEP. ISs that relate to CEP are systems such as Supply Chain Management, according to (B.Handfield and L.Nichols 1999) Is a set of approaches utilized to efficiently integrate suppliers, manufacturers, warehouses, and stores, so that merchandise is produced (often by computer aided design) and distributed at the right quantities, to the right locations, and at the right time, in order to minimize system wide costs while satisfying service level requirements It is easy to see how this can be related to management decision making, at each stage of a process with the use of SCM managers can stop the process and analyse production rates, therefore using IS systems to make a decision, which In the case of SCM means utilising every process so that wastage is at a minimum and costs remain low throughout production . Luckem further expresses that the use of IS systems in CEP does not function with remotely one source but needs both the Human and IS system to work collectively for any form of process to work accordingly. Although(Bider 2010) argues the reliability of information processed by ISs. He states that human error can often be the cause of incorrect data. This is not uncommon; often as information is filtered through the information map from department to department human error can cause faults. So an argument could be formed that managers can often put great analysis into ISs, but decisions can be made using the wrong output from the system. In relation to the four stages of processing, this output can then be stored incorrectly meaning any future decisions based on this first problem will not aid the answer process as the information will be incorrect. There are other types of systems that can significantly aid decision making DSSs or Decision Support Systems are systems that aid making decisions through the use of built in models. (Turban 1995) Defines it as an interactive, flexible, and adaptable computer-based information system, especially developed for supporting the solution of a non-structured management problem for improved decision making. It utilizes data, provides an easy-to-use interface, and allows for the decision maker’s own insights. DSSs are comprised of three modules data management, model management and dialog management or in profit terms (actual prior, possible sales, possible revenue, and possible profit). Using these modules DSSs helps find an ideal course of action, able to analyse and finally answer questions that are often asked upon humans, What if or How will this action impact revenue are example. DSSs are able to process raw data, and draw comparisons to generate information to aid a business decision. Although (Jensen, B.Lowry and Jeffery 2011) argue that the now more wide spread use of Decision Support Systems due to the increase in technology used in business today should not replace the decision making of a human. They argue that although It is often difficult for people to assess credibility correctly in face-to-face interactions but argue the use of DSSs cannot be used as an absolute decision making process The capability of face-to-face interactions is critical to effective communication and decision making. Their views can be seen as somewhat old fashioned when relating to decision making. Similar to DSSs are Strategic information systems. The root of this system is based upon Michael E. porters Concept of competitive advantage. This concept analyses the strategic steps a business undergoes to gain an advantage over its competitors. According to (E.Porter 1998), SIS works by enhancing opportunities through analysing competitors, recording seller patterns, identifying potential substitute products and finally retrieving information on keeping a healthy share in the businesss market. All of these should aid a business to create a competitive advantage through the means of SISs. The storing of data and analysis of this data is what managers will use to make decisions. In both the DSSs and SISs the analysis will often plan out a possible route in which the business may take to achieve its aims. It is then up to management to take these recommendations on board through adopting the ideas or not. IS used in the hierachary of a business are important to assess, at an operational level Systems used will be Transactional Process systems are Electronic point of sale, both of these systems allow managers to analyse structured data and draw conclusions for themselves, examples of this maybe the management of stock ordering to improve on wastage, or assessing what product sells at an appropriate time. These systems can then be assessed by the tactical level that may use the means of DSSs to assess new pricing strategies to adapt to the operational level through the help of DSSs but on the evidence of data outputted by TPSs or EPOS. The next and final stage will be the use of the systems at a strategic level. Strategic level will use DSSs and Executive information systems (similar to DSSs but often seen as more precise and concentrated form of system) along with unstructured data which occurs through the means of meetings, conversations and emails .Furthermore strategic level generally have access to IS of all subordinates ISs to help make decisions as well as ISs linked together with external commercial services, such as the latest stock prices and general business news are also common. It is clear that ISs aid management decisions, but in context of this it is important to assess the characteristics of the managers, as well of the management styles. For example managers that adopt an autocratic style of management will be less interested in staff well-being which may affect their reaction to support they receive through IS systems, meaning they may adopt any plans a DSS comes up with whether or not it has a negative effect on staff. Democratic style managers may rely heavily on the data produced from systems of their subordinate. When assessing the improvement of decision making through the means of ISs, I feel it is important to assess manager characteristics, it is clear that there are systems that aid the decision making process but as (Bider 2010) stated there can be human error caused through the input of a system which may lead to poor decision making. I feel steady analysis through each stage of the input process will allow data to be used correctly, therefore being pivotal in decision making process and consequently improving them. Bibliography B.HANDFIELD, Robert and L.NICHOLS, Ernest (1999). Introduction to Supply Chain Management. vol.1. 1st ed., Prentice Hall. Business Using IS , BIDER, IIia (2010). Enterprise, Business-Process and Information Systems Modeling. vol.50. 1st ed., Queensland, Springer. 364213050X. C.LUCAS, Henry (1994). Information systems concepts for management. 5 ed., indiana, Mitchell McGraw-Hill. 11. C.LUCKEM, David (2002). The Power of Events: An Introduction to Complex Event Processing in Distributed Enterprise Systems. 1 ed., Addison wesly. 1. E.PORTER, Michael (1998). Competitive advantage: creating and sustaining superior performance : with a new introduction. Havard, Simon and Schuster. JENSEN, Matthew, B.LOWRY, Paul and JEFFERY, Jenkins (2011). Effects of Automated and Participative Decision Support in Computer-Aided Credibility Assessment. Journal of management information syetems, 28 (1), 201-233. LAUBACHER, Robert (2011). Managing Corporate Reputation in the Blogosphere: The Case of Dell Com puter. Corporate Reputation Review, 14 (2), 133-144. OZ, JONES and GOWTHORPE (2009). Finacial and Management Informatoin. vol.2. London, Cengage Learning. TURBAN, Efriam (1995). Decision support, And what they do? In: Decision support and expert systems : management support systems. Englewood cliffs, Prentice Hall, p.576.

Advantages Of Using Subnetting

Advantages Of Using Subnetting Subnetting is allowed you to divide one physical network which is whether a class A, B, or C into several smaller logical subnetworks. The main idea of subnetting is borrowing bits from the host IP address and using them to create one or more networks within the network. Furthermore, It permits using two or more local area networks (LANs) technology in the same network such as Ethernet and Toking ring (Cisco 2005; PSI 2000). Advantages of using subnetting: It is useful to control and to reduce the network traffic by limiting number of broadcasts. It is allowed any organization to subnet its network without needed to have a new network IP through an internet service provider (ISP). Subnetting was so helpful to solve the problem of lacking IP addresses on the Internet. Allowing to use two or more LAN technologies together in the same network. Subnets also helpful to minimize the size of the routing tables on the internet since additional network numbers will not being added to the table. When you want to isolate segments for security reasons such as accounting and sales segment. When you want to isolate bad segments such as domination hosts which use most of the LAN bandwidth (PSI 2000). Disadvantage Advantages of using subnetting: Subnetting decreases the total number of IP addresses in the network but may need buying additional hardware such as a router. So, it may cost lots of money(PSI 2000). It cannot correct the lack of efficiency because companies still assign address block regarding to classes (Kozierok 2005). Supernetting It is the opposite of subnetting that is allowed you to divide one physical network into several smaller logical networks. On the other hand, Supernetting is allowed you to combine one or more smaller logical network to making one large network. It is a part of classless inter domain routing (CIDR) (Wright 1998). In addition, it is used in routing tables to merge nearby class C (Blank 2002). It is necessary when you need more hosts on the network. So, the main concept of supernetting is borrowed one or more bits from the current network address and using it to produce a large amount of hosts (Inetdaemon). Private and Public IP addresses Public IP Address It is an IP address which is able to be seen by the public. Public IP Address allows people access your computer form everywhere and know about you such as a web server. Private IP Addresses It is used on a private network and it is not able to route through the public Internet. It is useful for security reasons. All privet IP addresses are fallen within the following IP address ranges (Syndication 2007): Class A 10.0.0.0 through 10.255.255.255 Class B 172.16.0.0 through 172.31.255.255 Class C 192.168.0.0 through 192.168.255.255 2- Subnetting calculate : 192.168.1.40/24 IP class / class C Total usable subnets/networks / 256 Total usable IP addresses in each subnets/networks / 254 The first 5 subnets/networks / 192.168.1.0, 192.168.1.1, 192.168.1.2, 192.168.1.3, 192.168.1.4 10.4.78.21/8 IP class / class A Total usable subnets/ networks / 1677216 Total usable IP addresses in each subnet/network / 1677214 The first 5 subnets/networks / 10.0.0.0, 10.0.0.1, 10.0.0.2, 10.0.0.3, 10.0.0.4 10.0.0.9/24 IP class / class A Total usable subnets/networks / 256 Total usable IP addresses in each subnets/networks / 254 The first 5 subnets/networks- 10.0.0.0, 10.0.0.1, 10.0.0.2, 10.0.0.3, 10.0.0.4 203.51.131.23/27 IP class / class C Total usable subnets/ networks / 32 Total usable IP addresses in each subnets/networks /30 The first 5 subnets/networks-203.51.131.0, 203.51.131.1, 203.51.131.2, 203.51.131.3, 203.51.131.4 198.110.43.112/26 IP class / class C Total usable subnets/ networks / 64 Total usable IP addresses in each subnets/networks / 62 The first 5 subnets/networks / 198.110.43.64, 198.110.43.65, 198.110.43.66, 198.110.43.67,198.110.43.68 3- Static and dynamic routing : Static routing manually is configured into the routing table by configuration file or a network administrator who can access and configure the routers (Inetdaemon2). So, it is called static because it needs someone who can create that routing table physically. In addition, it provides control over routing (Balchunas 2007). Advantages of Static Routing: It reduces the physical hardware overhead. It also minimize the bandwidth overhead (Balchunas 2007). Disadvantages of Static Routing: Static routing is a manual process so it will not work good with a massive number of routing. It also does not fix any connection problem so the router must configured manually to solve any connection down (Inetdaemon2). Difficult to configure large network (Balchunas 2007). Dynamic routing Dynamic routing automatically is configured by a routing protocol that runs on the routers (Balchunas 2007). Dynamic routing protocols are applications that can find a network destination and then record it into the routing table (Inetdaemon2). Advantages of Dynamic Routing: Easy to configure a big networks. Dynamically change to a different route if there is any connection down (Balchunas 2007). Disadvantages of Dynamic Routing: Consuming more bandwidth. It consumes more hardware as well. It chooses the best connection way regarding to the routing protocol not to the routers administrator (Balchunas 2007). Commonly used dynamic routing table RIP (Routing Information Protocol). EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol). OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) (Balchunas 2007). 4- The difference between a layer 2 and a layer 3 network device The difference between them is a layer 2 device works only with MAC addresses to forward network data packets; however a layer 3 device works on IP address. Moreover, layer 2 devices are transfer network packets from physical address to physical address but layer 3 devices looking for the best route to transmit data packets. So, layer 2 networks are faster than a layer 3 network because it just needs to forward data to the right destination without make any decision (Simon 2006). Example of layer 2 device and describing it: Switch. It is used to connect two local area networks (LAN) or more. It works under OSI (Open System Interconnection Reference) model Layer 2. Furthermore, It usually has multiple ports to connect devices together or to connect two or more local area networks (LAN). it receives data and forwards it depending on the destination MAC (Media Access Control) address to only destination that should receive it . Moreover, It only sends data within the same subnet as well (Maufer). Example of layer 3 device and describing it: Router. Router is used to connect two wide area networks (WAN). It works at OSI (Open System Interconnection Reference) model Layer 3. Furthermore, It forwards data depending on the destination network address to only destination that should receive it as well (Maufer).

Effects of Demographics on Performance Appraisals

Effects of Demographics on Performance Appraisals 23 Geddes This study examined the effects of demographic similarity and dissimilarity on perceptions of performance appraisals and reactions to negative feedback. When organizational members accept task-relevant feedback, they are more likely to maintain and/or modify their behaviors in ways that will improve future performance. In contrast, when employees reject supervisor feedback, more common when an evaluation indicates performance deficits, they may respond unfavorably (Fedor et al., 2001; Ilgen Davis, 2000). Fedor, D.B., Davis, W.D., Maslyn, J.M. Mathieson, K. Performance improvement efforts in response to negative feedback: The roles of source power and recipient self-esteem. Journal of Management, 2001, 27, 79-97. Ilgen, D. Davis, C. Bearing bad news: Reactions to negative performance feedback. Applied Psychology, 2000, 49, 550-65. 9 Catano The limitations of performance assessment, such as inflated ratings, lack of consistency, and the politics of assessment (Tziner, Latham, Price, Haccoun, 1996), often lead to their abandonment. Managers responsible for delivering performance reviews who are uncomfortable with the performance rating system may give uniformly high ratings that do not discriminate between ratees. Poor ratings detract from organizational uses and increase employee mistrust in the performance appraisal system (Tziner Murphy, 1999). Employees on the receiving end of the appraisal often express dissatisfaction with both the decisions made as a result of performance assessment and the process of performance assessment (Milliman, Nason, Zhu, De Cieri, 2002), which may have longitudinal effects on overall job satisfaction (Blau, 1999) and commitment (Cawley, Keeping, Levy, 1998). legally sound performance appraisals should be objective and based on a job analysis, they should also be based on behaviors that relate to specific functions that are controllable by the ratee, and the results of the appraisal should be communicated to the employee (Malos, 1998). Second, the appraisals must be perceived as fair. Procedural fairness is improved when employees participate in all aspects of the process, when there is consistency in all processes, when the assessments are free of supervisor bias, and when there is a formal channel for the employees to challenge or rebut their evaluations (Gilliland Langdon, 1998). In addition to perceptions of fairness, participation by employees in the appraisal process is related to motivation to improve job performance, satisfaction with the appraisal process, increased organizational commitment, and the utility or value that the employees place on the appraisal (Cawley et al., 1998). Tziner A, Latham GP, Price BS, Haccoun R. (1996). Development and validation of a questionnaire for measuring perceived political considerations in performance appraisal. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 17, 179-190. Tziner A, Murphy KR. (1999). Additional evidence of attitudinal influences in performance appraisal. Journal of Business and Psychology, 13, 407-419. Milliman J, Nason S, Zhu C, De Cieri H. (2002). An exploratory assessment of the purposes of performance appraisals in North and Central America and the Pacific Rim. Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, 40, 105-122. Malos SB. (1998). Current legal issues in performance appraisal. In Smither JW (Ed.), Performance appraisal: State of the art in practice (pp. 49-94). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 60- Maurer Structured interviews can be quite demanding for interviewees, combining social and cognitive processes (Campion, Palmer Campion, 1997, Dipboyes, 2005) 55 Levinson Because management by objectives is closely related to performance appraisal and review, I shall consider these together as one practice, which is intended: To measure and judge performance, To relate individual performance to organizational goals, To clarify both the job to be done and the expectations of accomplishment, To foster the increasing competence and growth of the subordinate, To enhance communications between superior and subordinate, To serve as a basis for judgments about salary and promotion, To stimulate the subordinates motivation, and To serve as a device for organizational control and integration. Major Problems. According to contemporary thinking, the ideal process should proceed in five steps: 1) individual discussion with the superior of the subordinates own job description, 2) establishment of the employees short-term performance targets, 3) meetings with the superior to discuss the employees progress toward targets, 4) establishment of checkpoints to measure progress, and 5) discussion between superior and subordinate at the end of a defined period to assess the results of the subordinates efforts. In ideal practice, this process occurs against a background of more frequent, even day-today, contacts and is separate from salary review. But, in actual practice, there are many problems: No matter how detailed the job description, it is essentially static that is, a series of statements. However, the more complex the task and the more flexible an employee must be in it, the less any fixed statement of job elements will fit what that person does. Thus, the higher a person rises in an organization and the more varied and subtle the work, the more difficult it is to pin down objectives that represent more than a fraction of his or her effort. With pre-established goals and descriptions, little weight can be given to the areas of discretion open to the individual but not incorporated into a job description or objectives. I am referring here to those spontaneously creative activities an innovative executive might choose to do, or those tasks a responsible executive sees need to be done. As we move toward a service society, in which tasks are less well defined but spontaneity of service and self-assumed responsibility are crucial, this becomes pressing. Most job descriptions are limited what employees do in their work. They do not adequately take into account the increasing interdependence of managerial work in organizations. This limitation becomes more important as the impact of social and organizational factors on individual performance becomes better understood. The more employees effectiveness depends on what other people do, the less any one employee can be held responsible for the outcome of individual efforts. If a primary concern in performance review is counseling the subordinate, appraisal should consider and take into account the total situation in which the superior and subordinate are operating. In addition, this should take into account the relationship of the subordinates job to other jobs. In counseling, much of the focus is on helping the subordinate learn to negotiate the system. There is no provision in most reviews and no place on appraisal forms with which I am familiar to report and record such discussion. The setting and evolution of objectives is done over too brief a period of time to provide for adequate interaction among different levels of an organization. This militates against opportunity for peers, both in the same work unit and in complementary units, to develop objectives together for maximum integration. Thus, both the setting of objectives and the appraisal of performance make little contribution to the development of teamwork and more effective organizational self-control. Coupled with these problems is the difficulty that superiors experience when they undertake appraisals. Douglas McGregor complained that the major reason appraisal failed was that superiors disliked playing God by making judgments about another persons worth.[1] He likened the superiors experience to inspection of assembly-line products and contended that his revulsion was against being inhuman. To cope with this problem, McGregor recommended that an individual should set his or her own goals, checking them out with the superior, and should use the appraisal session as a counseling device. Thus, the superior would become one who helped subordinates achieve their own goals instead of a dehumanized inspector of products. Every management by objectives and appraisal program should include regular appraisals of the manager by subordinates, and be reviewed by the managers superior. Every manager should be specifically compensated for how well he or she develops people, based on such appraisals. The very phrase reporting to reflects the fact that although a manager has a responsibility, the superior also has a responsibility for what he or she does and how its done. 57 Lievens High structured interviews appear to be less frequently used in personnel management practice than might be expected given their good reliability and validity. Meta-analytic research has demonstrated that low structure interviews are considerably worse than high structure interviews in terms of reliabilitry (Conway, Jako and Goodman, 1995) and criterion-related validity (Huffcutt Arthur, 1994 Marchese) 6- Brewer Organizational commitment is the extent to which employees identify with their organization and managerial goals, show a willingness to invest effort, participate in decision making and internalize managerial values[10]. 10. OReilly, C. and Chatman, J., Organisational commitment and psychological attachment: the effects of compliance, identification and internalisation on prosocial behaviour, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 71, 1986, pp. 492-9. 3 Baruch The process of performance appraisal (PA) is of most importance in human resource management (HRM). In a broad sense, PA systems are used for two main purposes: as a source for information for management; and as a feedback instrument for individuals employed by the organization. In the first case, the applications of the use of PA serve a variety of management functions. These could be decision-making about promotions, training needs, salaries, etc. Where feedback is the main goal, the fundamental purpose is to provide the employee with information that will improve personal performance and effectiveness. Recently the second approach has gained more attention. Providing the employee with feedback is widely recognized as a crucial activity. Such feedback may encourage and enable self-development, and thus will be instrumental for the organization as a whole. 47 Kuvaas Performance appraisal (PA) is among the most important Human Resource (HR) practices (Boswell and Boudreau, 2002; Judge and Ferris, 1993) and one of the more heavily researched topics in work psychology (Fletcher, 2002). PA has increasingly become part of a more strategic approach to integrating HR activities and business policies and may now be seen as a generic term covering a variety of activities through which organizations seek to assess employees and develop their competence, enhance performance and distribute rewards (Fletcher, 2001) failure (see, e.g. Cardy and Dobbins, 1994; Murphy and Cleveland, 1995). 44 Klehe The distinction between what people can do (maximum performance) and what they will do (typical performance) has received considerable theoretical but scan empirical attention in industrial-organizational psychology. The distinction between typical and maximum performance holdwide -researching practical and theoretical implications for performance appraisal and research validating fundamental assumptions of the typical-maximum performance distinction is as yet unavailable. 31 Harung Management is by nature a holistic profession. Management calls for the necessary understanding of a wide spectrum of factual knowledge and theories (economics, finance, technology, law, etc.). It calls for competence in the particular type of business one is managing and the ability to take part in and oversee manifold processes such as communication, team building, group decision and production. 39 Ivancevich Feedback of performance appraisal information has received increasing attention in the applied organizational behaviour literature (Latman Wexley, 1981). Ilgen, Fisher and Taylor (1979) in a thorough review of the literature discussed the nature of feedback, element of the feedback process and the implications of feedbacks in the work environment. Another related approach to providing feedback is the use of goal setting procedures. There has been an increasing number of studies that indicate that goal setting can be an effective approach for improving attitudes and increasing performance (). 82 Tziner Investigations of performance appraisal instruments have focused primarily on their psychometric properties (Bernardin, 1977, Borman 1979, Tziner, 1984). The result of the field experiment provided strong support for the proposition that a performance review consisting of performance feedback followed by goal setting would favourably influence work satisfaction and organizational commitment to a greater extent than performance review comprising feedback only. A plausible explanation as to why performance feedback has an impact rests with the fact that people are basically feedback seekers (Ashford, 1986). Feedback is a vehicle trough which the appraisee receives information about how well he meets organizational expectations and work requirements. Performance feedback followed by goal setting caused nonetheless a considerable magnitude of improvement. Most researchers have reported little or no training of appraisal with regard to proposed appraisal instruments. 65 Meyer To say that the performance appraisal feedback problem has been an enigma for managers and personnel specialists is probably a glaring understatement. The appraisal and feedback program is one of the psychologists and personnel specialists popular topics in the personnel literature. Problems experienced with performance appraisal programs are myriad. Significant eyidence has shown that most managers find the program onerous and distasteful. Feedback regarding job performance seems necessary to justify administrative decisions, such as whether a salary increase is awarded and the size of the increase, or whether an employee should be transferred to another job or scheduled for promotion. Feedback should contribute to improved performance. The positive effect of feedback on performance has always been an accepted psychological principal. For employees who are not in an obviously dependent role, an appraisal discussion designed to serve communication, motivation, and development purposes should be based on the subordinates self appraisal. To improve the value of a feedback discussion based on self-review, the grading aspect should be eliminated. If a goal setting program is being used, such as Management by Objectives, this annual review discussion is not the best place to establish detailed job goals for the year. Training supervisors to handle this type of discussion could be valuable. It need not be any more extensive than the training given for conventional appraisal programs, 29 Gunn A boss should ensuring privacy, removing distractions, setting context, providing specifics, allowing time for dialoguebut thats all blocking and tackling. It fails to address the fundamental problem: a blurred line between feedback and criticism. Even if we simply point out or describe another persons behaviour as a neutral observer, we are acting as a critic. Feeling judged, the person to whom we are giving feedback is likely to head south emotionally. Open-ended questions help maintain the right frame for the conversation. Feedback is truly a gift.. .but its the giver who receives it. In the process of delivering feedback in an open-minded way, we are invited to explore our own thinking, our mental assumptions, with another person. 58 Lindenberger They fear performance evaluations, so they avoid giving feedback. They dread the emotional part, so they refuse to risk saying anything that might make their colleagues unhappy. When they do give feedback, they send the wrong message by emphasizing only poor performance. 61 maylett Feedback has been used for decades as a measurement of past performance and behaviours. However, it wasnt until the mid-1980s that extensive use of 360-degree feedback became common for identifying strengths and development needs that might not be exposed in traditional performance evaluations. Similar to the 360 degrees of a circle, with the participant figuratively at the center of that circle, feedback is gathered from those most familiar with that participants performance: supervisors, peers, and direct reports. Most 360-degree feedback assessments and employee engagement initiatives fall under the umbrella of training and development, organizational development, or HR departments. It is important that these professionals understand the connections these instruments have to the bottom line. 13 Cook The importance of people to organizational performance has long been recognised (Pragald and Hamel, 1990), yet according to Fletcher (1993) more than 80 percent of UK organizations surveyed in the UK express some dissatisfaction with their performance appraisal systems, perceiving that they fail as a mechanism to develop and motivate people. The Achilles heel of the entire process, according to Kikoski (1999) is the annual performance review interview; line managers are under-preparated to handle the interview and reluctant to give negative feedback, leading to a situation where the people being appraised receive incomplete and inaccurate messages about their performance. The litterature suggests that people will only be satisfied with a performance appraisal peocess if it fulfils the criteria of fairness. It has also been suggested that a lack of appraisee trainibg in the PA process may cause discrepancies between expected and actual performance assessments which will contribute to dissatisfaction with the system (Bretz et al. 1992). People have been identified as the source of competitive advantage for organizations by numerous researchers (McGregor 1960, Barney, 1995, Prahalad and Hamel, 1990, Storey, 1991). People who are not appraisers, but are asked to provide input to another persons annual review, should also receive training to allow them to provide effective. The importance of training people to partecipate to PA is stressed by Bretz et al (1992) who advocate that it should be an ongoing process to achieve maximum effectiveness. Effective training should increase the effectiveness of the PAS and ultimately lead to greater organizational effectiveness. 50- Laird Mayfield documented that 90 percent of the people who had been evaluated expressed satisfaction with the performance appraisal procedure. While the idea of performance appraisal is almost universally accepted, its actual operation in some instances has failed to live up to its promise as an effective managerial tool. 64 Messmer Performance reviews can be a powerful tool for motivating team members to higher performance levels and improving relationship between managers and employees. - 16 deGregorio Research to date has clearly found that performance feedback is necessary in order to maintain and/or improve job performance (Catano, 1976; Erez, 1977; Kim Hamner, 1976; Komaki, Barwick, Scott, 1978). A self-appraisal instrument can provide a vehicle through which subordinate participation in the feedback process is ensured (Bassett Meyer, 1968; Kay, Meyer, French, 1965). The results indicated that performance appraisal based on a self-review was more satisfying to managers and subordinates than manager-prepared appraisals. Employees who have not previously participated in performance discussions are not always satisfied with the self-appraisal approach. In Bassett and Meyers study, such employees stated that when top-down appraisals were used, supervisor expectations were much clearer. 17 Dobbins If ratees are dissatisfied with the appraisal system or perceive it as unfair, they will be less likely to use evaluations as feedback to improve their performance (Ilgen, Fish Taylor, 1979). Similarity, dissatisfaction with appraisal procedures could potentially lead to employee turnover, decreased motivation and feeling of inequity. Past research suggests that appraisal satisfaction is a function of both the level of evaluation and the feedback provided by the evaluation. Ratees are also more satisfied with appraisal systems that provide useful feedback about job performance. As noted by Carroll and Schneier (1982), one of the primary purposes of the formal appraisal is to provide clear, performance-based feedback to employees. As noted earlier, it is widely recognised that appraisal system can provide employees with feedback concerning the adequacy of their job performance (Bernardin Beatty, 1984). Feedback can be defined as a subset of information that allow employees to judge the appropriateness or correctness of behaviours for attaining various goals (Ashford, 1986). 76 Segalla The future looked likely to prefer high performance, well trained and multi-lingual managers. 43 Jaworsky Supervisory feedback is a useful mechanism for controlling salespeoples performances (Teas 1983, Tyagi, 1985, Walker, Churchill and ford 1977). Importantly, supervisory control can be exercised at the input, process or output stages (Jaworsky, 1988). Further, given the positive feedback can pertain too to outputs or behaviours, the issue of comparative effectiveness of alternative types of supervisory feedback takes on greater complexity. The typology of supervisory feedback used in our study is drived from two dimensions. The first dimension is the locus of feedback, whether feedback pertains to a sales persons output or behaviour. The second dimention is the valence of feedback, whether feedback is positive or negative. Feedback is argued to improve performance through it informational and motivational effects. 35 Hiltrop Employees are expected to do their work and think of ways to improve it, achieve new levels of performance, contribute to change efforts and manage their own ongoing learning processes (Mohrman and Mohrman, 1993). Organizations will become more complex and ambiguous place to work (Handy, 1989) The role of the manager will become more lateral, with much more focus on people, customers and processes. As Cannon (1996) points out: managers are being asked to show their worth on a more decentralized workplace, worth valuated in terms of effectiveness in creating conditions in which people can deliver the best results. Most commentators agree that managers of the future will require a more extensive mix of skills and competencies than their processors. For instance, Allred et al. (1996) argues that, as more companies adopt some type of networked structure, managers need to have not only strong collaborative, partnership and relationship skills. In the organization of the future, managers role have been portrayed as those of portfolio specialists, whose work and income comes first and foremost from having high expertise in a particular field or subject that is essential to the business (Nicholson, 1996). Managers of the future will have to develop a much wider range of skills and competencies than their predecessors. According to Carson and Carson (1997) many organizations are burdened with workers who want to jump ship, but who stay firmly on board grasping for long-term security in the face of widespread job cuts. There is no doubt that the successful managers for the future will need a very different set of skills and competencies than their predecessors. 42 Jawahar A primary purpose of formal performance appraisals is the provision of clear, performance-based feedback to employees (Carroll Schneier, 1982; Ilgen, Fisher Taylor, 1979). The significance of feedback to the appraisal process as well as to the broader management process has been widely acknowledged (e.g., Bernardin Beatty, 1984; Ilgen et al., 1979; Lawler, 1994; Maier, 1958; Murphy Cleveland, 1995). Performance feedback has the potential to influence future performance (Ilgen et al., 1979; Kluger DeNisi, 1996), and significantly impact job and organizational attitudes (Ilgen, Peterson, Martin Boeschen, 1981; Pearson, 1991; Taylor, Fisher Ilgen, 1984). Thus, feedback is not only important to individuals but also to organizations because of its potential influence on performance and a variety of attitudes and behaviors of interest to organizations. Satisfaction with appraisal feedback is regarded as one of the most consequential of the reactions to appraisal feedback (e.g., Dorfman, Stephan Loveland, 1986; Giles Mossholder, 1990; Keeping Levy, 2000). For instance, Giles and Mossholder (1990) and others (e.g., Organ, 1988) have asserted that satisfaction as a measure of employees reactions is a more encompassing indicator of reactions to appraisal feedback than more specific, cognitively oriented criteria, such as perceived utility and accuracy of feedback (e.g., Keeping Levy, 2000). In summary, the central role of feedback to the appraisal process and the importance of examining ratees satisfaction with appraisal feedback are widely acknowledged (e.g., Ilgen et al., 1979; Keeping Levy, 2000; Murphy Cleveland, 1995). Satisfaction with appraisal feedback is likely to enhance employees feelings of selfworth and their feelings of positive standing within the organization (Lind Tyler, 1988). If organizations are to realize the benefits of performance feedback, they should take the appraisal process and particularly the feedback discussions between the rater and ratee seriously. Although satisfaction with feedback has been a focal construct in a number of studies, its nomological net is not well understood. The significant relationship between satisfaction with feedback and organizational commitment became non-significant when the influences of job satisfaction and satisfaction with manager on organizational commitment were statistically controlled. Results of this study indicate that the extent to which ratees are satisfied with the performance feedback benefits the ratee, rater and the organization. Ratees benefit as satisfaction with feedback is positively related to their job satisfaction and influences their future performance. Raters benefit as ratees satisfaction with feedback is positively related to ratees satisfaction with them, negatively related to turnover intentions, and influences future performance of ratees. 32 Heathfield Every method of assessing employee performance has its positive and negative characteristics. The traditional process of performance appraisal reflects and underpins an old-fashioned, paternalistic, top-down, autocratic mode of management that relies on organization charts and fear of job loss to keep troops in line. The traditional performance appraisal process treats employees as possessions of the company, fails to create a dialogue and rarely results in positive employee development and progress. Performance management is the process of creating a work environment or setting in which people are enabled to perform to the best of their abilities. Performance management is a whole work system that begins when a job is defined as needed and ends when its determined why an excellent employee left the organization for another opportunity. In a performance management system, feedback remains integral to successful practice. The feedback however becomes a discussion for both progress and personal business goals. 56 Liden Very little work has been done on the poor performers reactions to the leaders responses. Liden (1981) found that subordinates and leaders reported that the most common leader response to ineffective performance was to simply discuss the incident with the poorly performing subordinate. In such a discussion the leader is essentially giving negative feedback to the poor performer. Ilgen, Mitchell, and Fredrickson (1981a) found that poorly performing subordinates perceive specific feedback to be more helpful than general feedback. Similarly, results of a field study indicated that feedback timing, specificity, and frequency are all associated with subordinate satisfaction and perceptions of appraisal helpfulness (Ilgen, Peterson, Martin, Boeschen, 1981b). It was predicted that subjects would rate feedback containing consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus information (i.e., specific feedback) more positively than feedback containing information on none of these three dimensions (i.e., non-specific feedback). Subordinates rated specific feedback more positively than nonspecific feedback. Feedback including consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus information was rated higher than feedback containing information on none of these dimensions. This result supports the Ilgen, Fisher, and Taylor (1979) suggestion that subordinate misperceptions and nonacceptance of negative feedback might be corrected by providing more specific feedback. 19 Falcone In an era where intellectual capital defines any companys ability to stand out from its peers, measuring that human capital as a true asset may dictate the organizations ultimate success or failure. In reality, though, this challenge has gone mainly unresolved because managers see pertbnnance appraisal as an exercise that focuses only quantitatively on individual performance as the core foundation and building block of the performance review process. So much for the Golden Cycle of Performance Management, which is: Goal setting and planning. Ongoing feedback and coaching. Appraisal and reward. Under the current way of handling appraisals, the first two steps rarely get addressed, leaving the culmination in the third step more theory than reality. 27 Grensing-Pophal Many CU managers and business experts note that performance evaluation is perhaps the most important part of the interaction between supervisors and managers. 62- McGregor Formal performance appraisal plans are designed to meet three needs, one for the organization and two for the individual: 1. they provide systematic judgments to back up salary increases, promotions, transfers and sometimes demotions and terminations 2. they are a means of telling a subordinate how he is doing, and suggesting needed changes in his behaviour, attitudes, skills or job knowledge, they let him know where he stands with the boss. 3. They are also being increasingly used as a basis for the coaching and counselling of the individual by the superior. McGregor found that one of the bosss resistance to effective appraisal interview is related to the lack of skills needed to handle the interview. Training programs designed to teach the skills of appraising and interviewing do help, but they seldom eliminate manager

Prescience, Genetic Memory, and Personal Identity in Frank Herberts Dune Trilogy :: Frank Herbert Dune

Prescience, Genetic Memory, and Personal Identity in Frank Herbert's Dune Trilogy "Any road followed precisely to its end leads precisely nowhere.   Climb the mountain just a little bit to test that it's a mountain.   From the top of the mountain, you cannot see the mountain"(Herbert, Dune 68). –Bene Gesserit Proverb Ben Bova begins his liner notes on Frank Herbert Reads his God Emperor of Dune (Excerpts) by stating that "All truly great art shares this characteristic: the more you study it, the more it reveals" (Herbert).   Although it refers specifically to the fourth book in the Dune Chronicles, his statement also applies to the trilogy that precedes it–Dune, Dune Messiah, and Children of Dune.   Herbert's "polyphonic" work contains themes on so many levels (ecology, politics, war, philosophy, religion, and technology, just to name a few), that it soon becomes difficult to separate one from the other.   The topic of human awareness, however, takes on a specific tone and special level of importance above all the others.   Whether looking at the Bene Gesserit sisterhood and their political intrigues and planning, or the Mentat's historical role as the human computer 1 , filing away and analyzing countless bits of data, human awareness somehow always becomes a focus.   Even in th e economics of the work, where the "coin of the realm," the spice melange, is able not only to extend human life, but also to open up both past and future to the properly prepared mind, does this theme become evident. With all of his attention on the awareness of humanity, however, Herbert had more common and more difficult questions on his mind.   By creating a character, Paul Atreides, who is able to see not only into the future, but also into the past lives that made up his long list of ancestors, the questions of personal and societal identity are brought forward.   These powers, which Herbert refers to as "prescience" and "genetic memory," respectively, give Paul so much knowledge that he is no longer able to function as an individual.   He finds himself limited to certain actions because he knows the outcomes.   Once on top of the mountain, so to speak, he can no longer see where he stands.   In turn, Paul's son Leto II and daughter Ghanima, as well as his sister Alia, are also forced to deal with the issues of such knowledge in the entirely different light of "Abomination," a condition that befalls those whose inherited memories are unearthed before they are born.